Introduction . Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are the most used energy storage devices for portable electronics, electric vehicles and airplanes, and stationary devices. However, LIBs still exhibit several limitations related to low energy densities, poor long-cycling stability, and safety issues. As a result, significantly improving the electrochemical performance of LIBs is essential to satisfy the increasing demand for electric vehicles and smart grid systems1 , 2 , 3 , 4. I...